Overview

Buildings across the Highland region face multiple and interacting risks from high winds, heavy rainfall, storms, freeze–thaw cycles, and damp. These processes contribute to structural deterioration, moisture penetration, and rising maintenance costs, particularly in the region’s older stone and masonry housing stock. Future climate projections indicate greater exposure to wind-driven rain, higher winter rainfall, and more frequent freeze–thaw events, amplifying these risks. While national building standards and local enforcement provide a basic framework for protection, adaptation efforts remain limited. Strengthening regional collaboration to integrate resilience into building standards, retrofit practices, and training could substantially reduce damage and associated social costs. Proactive action over the next five years would help safeguard Highland homes, infrastructure, and heritage from worsening climatic impacts.

 

What is the current level of risk?

Although traditional stone and masonry buildings remain widespread in Highland, with 25.9% of dwellings built before 1945.[1] Stock condition data indicate that vulnerability is uneven across the region: 47% of all Highland homes fail the Scottish Housing Quality Standard, rising to 62% among pre-1945 dwellings, which perform significantly below national benchmarks. These deficits heighten exposure to moisture, draught ingress, and structural decay, particularly for lower-income and rural households.[2] Many of these dwellings rely on lightweight materials and insulation systems that can also be sensitive to wind-driven rain and prolonged damp under future climates.[3]

The structure of the regional housing stock also influences climatic exposure. Only 13% of all dwellings in the Highland Council area are flats, compared with 28% nationally. Detached houses account for the largest share of dwellings (41%, or almost 50,000 homes).[4] Detached and semi-detached properties have a greater external surface area of roofs and walls, increasing the amount of wind-driven rain and moisture loading they must withstand and heightening vulnerability under wetter, stormier conditions.

Current risks to buildings in the Highland region arise from a combination of climatic and structural vulnerabilities. Moisture is one of the most significant drivers of building damage. Wind-driven rain, in particular, imposes heavy external moisture loads on walls and roofs, leading to penetration through porous materials, rising damp, and mould formation in cold and humid conditions typical of northern Scotland.[5] Persistent wetting and reduced drying potential, especially in solid wall or historic buildings, heighten the risks of condensation, frost damage, and internal decay of structural timber and plasterwork.[6]

Freeze–thaw processes continue to affect buildings across upland and coastal Highland areas, where frequent winter temperature fluctuations cause expansion and contraction of trapped moisture within masonry, resulting in cracking, spalling (degraded concrete), and accelerated surface erosion.[7] Wind-driven rain and heavy precipitation also weaken mortar joints and exterior finishes, particularly on exposed coastal or elevated sites. At the same time, prolonged dampness contributes to mould growth and deterioration of indoor air quality.[8] The Scottish Government has recognised excessive moisture, heavy rain, and high winds as principal hazards to building fabric, with effects compounded by the ageing housing stock and limited maintenance capacity in rural communities.[9]

Subsidence is a more localised but emerging issue in the Highlands, particularly where soil moisture variations affect foundations. Peatland and soft-ground settlements may alter drainage and load-bearing conditions, contributing to minor structural instability.[10] Together, these processes illustrate a pattern of climate-driven wear: buildings in the Highland region face increasing stress from combined wind, rain, and temperature variability, leading to progressive loss of structural integrity and higher maintenance demands.

 

What is the future level of risk?

By the 2080s, buildings in the Highland region are projected to face greater structural and moisture-related stress due to more intense and frequent wind, rainfall, and storm events. The UK Climate Projections (UKCP18) indicate significant increases in winter precipitation and in the frequency of heavy rainfall events, which will heighten exposure to wind-driven rain and interior moisture accumulation.[11],[12] In coastal and upland areas, these changes are expected to increase damp penetration, raise moisture levels in masonry, and increase the risk of freeze–thaw damage during colder months.[13] Simulations of building performance under future climate scenarios show that even moderate increases in rainfall and humidity will substantially raise the likelihood of mould growth and façade decay in traditional solid-wall housing.[14],[15]

Increased storm intensity is also expected to amplify roof and façade failures, particularly among older or poorly maintained structures typical of rural Highland settlements.[16] Foundation stability could be further affected by soil moisture variability and subsidence linked to changing precipitation and drainage regimes.[17] Without significant adaptation, the combined impacts of moisture, frost, and wind loading will accelerate deterioration and increase repair costs across the regional building stock.[18]

 

Is the risk being managed or adapted to?

Current management of building-related climate risks in the Highland region relies primarily on national building standards, local enforcement of those standards, and general property maintenance, rather than on specific adaptation to future climate stressors. The Scottish Building Standards Procedural Handbook (Third Edition) establishes the regulatory framework for construction and renovation, requiring buildings to be designed and constructed to prevent moisture penetration and ensure structural safety.[19] However, these standards are predominantly compliance-based and do not yet mandate regionally tailored climate adaptation measures for increased wind-driven rain or freeze–thaw exposure.

Local authorities act as verifiers and enforcers under the Building (Scotland) Act 2003, but in rural Highland areas, enforcement and maintenance capacity are limited, particularly for older or privately owned housing stock.[20],[21] Retrofitting of traditional buildings, common across the Highland region, poses further challenges. Internal wall insulation, for example, can inadvertently increase moisture accumulation and mould risk if not designed to accommodate high external wetting loads.[22]

While research and pilot projects have explored climate-resilient materials and moisture-tolerant insulation systems, widespread implementation remains limited. Adaptation actions are therefore fragmented and mainly preventative rather than transformative, leaving many buildings vulnerable to worsening climatic stress in the coming decades.[23]

 

Are there benefits from further action in the next five years, over and above what is already planned?

Further action within the next five years could deliver benefits by reducing the growing exposure of Highland buildings to climate-related damage. Strengthening the integration of climate resilience within building standards and retrofit programmes would help prevent costly deterioration in older structures and ensure that new developments are suited to future conditions.[24] Enhanced technical guidance specifically addressing wind-driven rain, moisture ingress, and freeze–thaw performance in exposed environments could support more durable and energy-efficient retrofits.[25]

Expanding research and demonstration projects in Highland could also improve understanding of how local materials, such as stone and lime mortar, respond under changing temperature and rainfall regimes. Promoting the use of capillary-active or vapour-permeable materials that have shown better performance under future moisture loads could reduce mould risk and façade decay.[26] Improved maintenance regimes, coupled with targeted funding for weatherproofing and drainage improvements, would further enhance resilience.[27]

Over the next planning cycle, aligning adaptation initiatives with broader housing and energy-efficiency schemes could also deliver co-benefits in carbon reduction and indoor health, helping preserve the region’s distinctive building heritage while mitigating escalating repair and insurance costs.[28]

 

Cascading and Interacting Risks

Risks to buildings from high winds, moisture, and freeze–thaw processes interact closely with other climate-related and social vulnerabilities in the Highland region. Increasing rainfall and storm intensity not only threaten the physical integrity of structures but also contribute to wider system impacts, including power outages, transport disruption, and damage to water and drainage infrastructure.[29] When buildings become damp or structurally compromised, cascading effects may include deterioration of indoor air quality, increased respiratory illness, and higher heating demand due to moisture retention, thereby linking building fabric degradation with human health and fuel poverty risks.[30]

High winds and extreme weather events can exacerbate social and economic disruption in remote settlements, where access to repair services is limited, and maintenance costs are high.[31] Structural failures may also interact with flooding hazards, as water ingress through damaged roofs or façades intensifies dampness and mould, further weakening materials and increasing long-term repair needs.[32] Ground instability and drainage alteration, whether from intense rainfall or peatland degradation, can compound building settlement and localised subsidence.[33] Collectively, these interdependencies demonstrate how climate-driven stresses on buildings can amplify community vulnerability, inequality, and economic strain across the Highland region.

 

 Options for regional collaboration

• Coordinate retrofit and maintenance programmes to address moisture management, insulation design, and storm resilience in traditional and rural housing stock.
• Develop a Highland-wide research and monitoring initiative on building performance under changing weather extremes, focusing on masonry moisture dynamics, roof resilience, and soil movement associated with heavy rainfall and freeze–thaw cycles.
• Strengthen skills and training for the local construction and repair workforce, ensuring familiarity with climate-adaptive materials and techniques such as vapour-permeable insulation, lime mortars, and improved drainage systems.

 

References

[1] The Highland Council, “Public Consultation Report | Local Heat and Energy Efficiency Strategy (LHEES),” Highland.gov.uk, 2025, https://www.highland.gov.uk/downloads/file/28141/local_heat_and_energy_efficiency_strategy_lhees..

[2] The Highland Council, “Public Consultation Report | Local Heat and Energy Efficiency Strategy (LHEES),” Highland.gov.uk, 2025, https://www.highland.gov.uk/downloads/file/28141/local_heat_and_energy_efficiency_strategy_lhees..

[3] Highland Council, Local Heat and Energy Efficiency Strategy: Public Consultation Report (2025).

[4] Highland Council, Local Heat and Energy Efficiency Strategy: Public Consultation Report (2025).

[5] Jacqueline Lu et al., “Climate Resilience of Internally-Insulated Historic Masonry Assemblies: Comparison of Moisture Risk under Current and Future Climate Scenarios,” Minerals 11, no. 3 (March 6, 2021): 271, https://doi.org/10.3390/min11030271.

[6] Anna Eknes Stagrum et al., “Climate Change Adaptation Measures for Buildings—a Scoping Review,” Sustainability 12, no. 5 (February 25, 2020): 1721, https://doi.org/10.3390/su12051721.

[7] Ma Katrina Rañeses et al., “Housing for Now and the Future: A Systematic Review of Climate-Adaptive Measures,” Sustainability 13, no. 12 (June 15, 2021): 6744, https://doi.org/10.3390/su13126744.

[8] Climate Change Committee, “Adapting to Climate Change: Progress in Scotland” (Climate Change Committee, November 2023), https://www.theccc.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/Adapting-to-climate-change-Progress-in-Scotland-Web.pdf.

[9] Climate Change Committee, “Adapting to Climate Change: Progress in Scotland” (Climate Change Committee, November 2023), https://www.theccc.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/Adapting-to-climate-change-Progress-in-Scotland-Web.pdf.

[10] Laurie S. Huning et al., “Global Land Subsidence: Impact of Climate Extremes and Human Activities,” Reviews of Geophysics 62, no. 4 (November 2, 2024), https://doi.org/10.1029/2023rg000817.

[11] Energy and Climate Change Directorate, The Scottish Government, “Scotland’s Climate Change Plan – 2026-2040” (GOV.SCOT, November 6, 2025), https://www.gov.scot/publications/scotlands-climate-change-plan-2026-2040/.

[12] Jacqueline Lu et al., “Climate Resilience of Internally-Insulated Historic Masonry Assemblies: Comparison of Moisture Risk under Current and Future Climate Scenarios,” Minerals 11, no. 3 (March 6, 2021): 271, https://doi.org/10.3390/min11030271.

[13] Anna Eknes Stagrum et al., “Climate Change Adaptation Measures for Buildings—a Scoping Review,” Sustainability 12, no. 5 (February 25, 2020): 1721, https://doi.org/10.3390/su12051721.

[14] Ma Katrina Rañeses et al., “Housing for Now and the Future: A Systematic Review of Climate-Adaptive Measures,” Sustainability 13, no. 12 (June 15, 2021): 6744, https://doi.org/10.3390/su13126744.

[15] Anna Eknes Stagrum et al., “Climate Change Adaptation Measures for Buildings—a Scoping Review,” Sustainability 12, no. 5 (February 25, 2020): 1721, https://doi.org/10.3390/su12051721.

[16] Ma Katrina Rañeses et al., “Housing for Now and the Future: A Systematic Review of Climate-Adaptive Measures,” Sustainability 13, no. 12 (June 15, 2021): 6744, https://doi.org/10.3390/su13126744.

[17] Laurie S. Huning et al., “Global Land Subsidence: Impact of Climate Extremes and Human Activities,” Reviews of Geophysics 62, no. 4 (November 2, 2024), https://doi.org/10.1029/2023rg000817.

[18] Climate Change Committee, “Adapting to Climate Change: Progress in Scotland” (Climate Change Committee, November 2023), https://www.theccc.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/Adapting-to-climate-change-Progress-in-Scotland-Web.pdf.

[19] Local Government and Housing Directorate, The Scottish Government, “Building Standards: Procedural Handbook – Third Edition Version 1.8” (GOV.SCOT, April 1, 2025), https://www.gov.scot/publications/building-standards-procedural-handbook-third-edition-version-1-8/documents/.

[20] Local Government and Housing Directorate, “Building Standards: Procedural Handbook – Third Edition Version 1.8” (2025).

[21] Climate Change Committee, “Adapting to Climate Change: Progress in Scotland” (Climate Change Committee, November 2023), https://www.theccc.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/Adapting-to-climate-change-Progress-in-Scotland-Web.pdf.

[22] Jacqueline Lu et al., “Climate Resilience of Internally-Insulated Historic Masonry Assemblies: Comparison of Moisture Risk under Current and Future Climate Scenarios,” Minerals 11, no. 3 (March 6, 2021): 271, https://doi.org/10.3390/min11030271.

[23] Anna Eknes Stagrum et al., “Climate Change Adaptation Measures for Buildings—a Scoping Review,” Sustainability 12, no. 5 (February 25, 2020): 1721, https://doi.org/10.3390/su12051721.

[24] Ma Katrina Rañeses et al., “Housing for Now and the Future: A Systematic Review of Climate-Adaptive Measures,” Sustainability 13, no. 12 (June 15, 2021): 6744, https://doi.org/10.3390/su13126744.

[25] Local Government and Housing Directorate, The Scottish Government, “Building Standards: Procedural Handbook – Third Edition Version 1.8” (GOV.SCOT, April 1, 2025), https://www.gov.scot/publications/building-standards-procedural-handbook-third-edition-version-1-8/documents/.

[26] Jacqueline Lu et al., “Climate Resilience of Internally-Insulated Historic Masonry Assemblies: Comparison of Moisture Risk under Current and Future Climate Scenarios,” Minerals 11, no. 3 (March 6, 2021): 271, https://doi.org/10.3390/min11030271.

[27] Ma Katrina Rañeses et al., “Housing for Now and the Future: A Systematic Review of Climate-Adaptive Measures,” Sustainability 13, no. 12 (June 15, 2021): 6744, https://doi.org/10.3390/su13126744.

[28] Climate Change Committee, “Adapting to Climate Change: Progress in Scotland” (Climate Change Committee, November 2023), https://www.theccc.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/Adapting-to-climate-change-Progress-in-Scotland-Web.pdf.

[29] Rebecca Simmonds et al., “A Review of Interacting Natural Hazards and Cascading Impacts in Scotland Research Funded by the National Centre for Resilience,” 2022.

[30] Climate Change Committee, “Adapting to Climate Change: Progress in Scotland” (Climate Change Committee, November 2023), https://www.theccc.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/Adapting-to-climate-change-Progress-in-Scotland-Web.pdf.

[31] Rebecca Simmonds et al., “A Review of Interacting Natural Hazards and Cascading Impacts in Scotland Research Funded by the National Centre for Resilience,” 2022.

[32] Anna Eknes Stagrum et al., “Climate Change Adaptation Measures for Buildings—a Scoping Review,” Sustainability 12, no. 5 (February 25, 2020): 1721, https://doi.org/10.3390/su12051721.

[33] Laurie S. Huning et al., “Global Land Subsidence: Impact of Climate Extremes and Human Activities,” Reviews of Geophysics 62, no. 4 (November 2, 2024), https://doi.org/10.1029/2023rg000817.

Key Definitions

For the HCCROA, the terms risk and opportunity are used in specific ways. Risk refers to the potential for climate change to cause harm to people, nature, buildings, infrastructure, and communities. Opportunity refers to the potential for climate change to alter conditions in ways that could be advantageous for certain activities, sectors, or places in the Highland region, relative to current conditions. These opportunities may arise alongside significant risks and do not offset or negate them.

The assessment also highlights a second kind of opportunity: opportunities for action. The HCCROA refers to options for regional collaboration, which are distinct from opportunities arising directly from climate change. Greater benefits may be realised from coordinated action to reduce risks than from relying on limited advantages associated with changing climate conditions themselves.

 

Mental Health

Climate change is a difficult topic to engage with, and Highland Adapts appreciates that this report presents potentially upsetting information. Visit the Highland Mental Wellbeing website to learn about mental health services, information, and training available in the Highland region.

 

Project Funding and Disclaimers

Core Highland Adapts funding is provided by its partner organisations. The HCCROA was partially funded by the Scottish Government’s Climate Ready Regions Grant. The views expressed in this document are not necessarily those of the Scottish Government. Its members, servants or agents accept no liability whatsoever for any loss or damage arising from the interpretation or use of the information, or reliance upon views contained herein.

The HCCROA is a product of the Highland Adapts partnership, conducted with support from Joseph Perry Consulting, Highland Adapts partner organisations, and other regional and national contributors. The analysis, findings, and conclusions presented in the HCCROA do not necessarily reflect the views of Highland Adapts partner organisations. The HCCROA is provided for general information and should not be regarded as a substitute for professional or technical advice. Highland Adapts, Joseph Perry Consulting, the report authors, and report contributors accept no responsibility for any loss or damage arising from the use or interpretation of information contained within the HCCROA.

This page was last updated on 3 Mar, 2026.